Global v Local: Architectural Globalisation and its Effect on Local Cultural Identity

Context:

Introduction

1.      Why Culture is Important

2.      Architecture and Cultural Identity

Case Study 1: Eiffel Tower

3.      Globalisation

Case Study 2: Masdar City

4.      Cultural Hegemony

Case Study 3: Dubai

Case Study 4: Oman

Case Study 5: W hotel

Case Study 6: Crowne Plaza

Conclusion

“The intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (Giddens, 1990:64).

 This is how Anthony Giddens describes globalisation in his book ‘The Consequences of Modernity’. Throughout this essay we will be focussing on globalisation as a (sometimes subconscious) adoption of style and ways of life from elsewhere which may have undesired consequences. There are many different definitions of culture. When the word is used within this essay it is referring to the collective nature, customs, lifestyle and identity specific to a given place.

This essay aims to highlight the importance of cultural identity and sense of place within design – specifically architecture and interior design. We will be looking into how globalisation and modernity have had – and are having – a detrimental effect on cultural identity in design. Through a series of case studies and my personal experiences I will discuss the ways in which these adaptations are damaging cultures and how some designers and places are trying to resist the movement.

1.      Why Culture is Important:

Humans have a desire to travel and experience new places; in 2018 alone, there were 1.4 billion international tourist arrivals (The Guardian, 2019).  So, what is it we seek to gain from this travel?

Figure 1: National Geographic ‘Map of Human Migration’ (2020)

The image above displays DNA tracking that has shown humans have been migrating around the world for millennia (National Geographic, 2019:online). This suggests that we seek changes in our environment. Scientists have discovered that approximately 20% of the world’s population have a variation of a gene DRD4-7R (Ellewood, M., et al., 2017:online) which is “linked with restlessness and curiosity… This restlessness can cause people to take bigger risks which includes exploring new or different places” (Psychology Blog Aimee, 2013:online). We yearn to experience different cultures and landscapes. So, what does experiencing different cultures do for us?  Human beings have always had a strong need to belong – to know where they fit in (Very Well Mind, 2019). Perhaps to find our identity we must first learn about others’ identities so we can decide where we fit in to it all – decide who we want to be. In his book ‘Europe: A Cultural History’ Rietbergen says (referring to travel):

“for many, the memory remained a life-enhancing experience, a factor which somehow determined their future thoughts and actions. An increasingly close interaction between travel and other forms of educated communication altered the elite vision of European culture.” (Rietbergen, 1998:330)

By writing this Rietbergen is stating that not only do our experiences travelling alter the way we think and act, they also influence our own cultures. It could then be said that through experiencing these different places and ways of life we are becoming more understanding and accepting of different cultures and subsequently different races and ethnicities. This would mean that travel and cultural exposure could lead to a more harmonious and understanding world – as humanist Jennifer Hancock writes:

Travelling “builds confidence and empathy and strengthens our sense of self while at the same time helping us to feel connected to others. In short, it helps give us a global perspective that is at once humbling and empowering” (Hancock, J., 2017:online)

 Alternatively, it can be argued that experiences like these highlight the differences between different groups, causing some individuals to have an adverse response resulting in more friction. But although in some rare cases this has caused negative responses from extremists, the likelihood is that people will be able to identify what they don’t like about other cultures and will subsequently learn more about themselves and their values – helping them to adapt and find the sense of self and belonging that they yearn for; “cultural identity is important for people's sense of self and how they relate to others” (New Zealand Ministry of Social Development, 2003). Whilst cultural diversity helps us decide who we are it also makes the world a much more interesting place; “when people come from different places and cultures they have contrasting points of views and ways of life” (Llanakila, 2018). Without these different views and ways of life there would be a reduced amount of individuality and a reduced cross-fertilisation of ideas, resulting in a lack of the creativity which makes the world flourish (Llanakila, 2018).

Culture brings large numbers of people to different countries, contributing to economic growth. However, this is not the reason cultural identities are formed. Culture is created from the history and nature of a place by the settled people. If a place has no culture it has no identity – no sense of place, and as Paul Brislin (leader of Arup's Sport Architecture and Sport Venue Design teams) says: “there is no doubt that a sense of identity is essential to survival – of individual, family, group and neighbourhood” (Brislin,2012). Therefore, it is fair to say that without culture there would be an increasing lack of identity. This would result in the absence of societies as people would not have that cultural connection bringing them together: “culture is the identity of the nation, without culture the society is impossible” (UK Essays, 2018:online).

2.      Architecture and Cultural Identity:

For thousands of years, buildings have been a form of expression and communication for humans. Roman villas were built to exude an air of wealth through their size, use of columns and mosaics.

Figure 2: ‘Milan’s Duomo’ (no date)

Cathedrals and churches – such as Milan’s Duomo shown above in figure 2 – convey a sense of power and fear through their towering steeples and gargoyles – of which Milan’s Duomo has a hundred and thirty-five. Architecture is used knowingly in this way, sending conscious and subconscious messages to those who behold it. Just as architecture conveys these messages of power and wealth it also communicates different cultures through its styles, materials and design: “Architecture is the result of the culture of the society” (Parvizi, E., 2009, cited by Ettehad, S., et al., 2014:online). So, when we build skyscrapers and modern architecture with no cultural links and sense of place, we are projecting this lack of identity into society;

“Just as you grow into the world, the world grows into you. Not only do you occupy a certain place, but that place in turn occupies you. Its culture shapes the way you see the world, its language informs the way you think, its customs structure you as a social being” (Costica, B., no date, cited by Mirchandani, K., 2015:1).

It could be argued that – in this sense – there are buildings standing that don’t represent the current culture of a place and therefore project a false representation of the host society. However, these buildings represent our history; what we have come from. They are a constant reminder of how we got to where we are and why we are no longer living with the values or ideas that we did in the past. It becomes clear when you look at previous world conflicts that these buildings, although they don’t necessarily represent our current culture and values, still hold an important place in our society and lives. Many countries and groups such as the so-called Islamic State have targeted historical buildings in bombings as a way of abolishing part of a place’s identity. This can emotionally destroy communities. As a result, in 2017 UNESCO adopted Resolution 2347 which protects sites of cultural heritage, the destruction of these types of buildings is now considered a war crime. This reinforces the idea that just because these buildings are no longer in use or in-line with our current values they still have an important role in our communities and in showcasing our history.

So, architecture plays a crucial role, not only in showcasing a place’s cultural identity but also in maintaining its culture, values and history. Former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill once said; “We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us” (1943, cited by Bill Maclay, 2014). When our buildings are designed with our cultural identities in mind, they are subtly suggesting we act in ways respectful to the history and culture of the place we are in. They are an often subconscious reminder of where we have come from and who we once were and wanted to be. In this way, architecture can also trigger social and cultural change as space suggests the way in which we should act; “space has an important role in strengthening cultural change, because the expected behaviour patterns within a particular space reflects the specific cultural values” (Ettehad, S., et al., 2014:online).  In some cases, buildings have been catalysts for certain cultural movements. Architecture can make statements so bold that they result in new cultural values in a community. An example of this would be the Eiffel Tower. Constructed from 1887-1889, the Eiffel Tower was built in preparation for the 1889 World’s Fair. The main attraction of the structure was supposed to be its height. As a 300-metre-tall iron tower, it was a challenge in the field of construction at the time. However, once built, the tower took on a whole new meaning and, due to the breath-taking views that could be seen from the top, helped give Paris its identity as “The City of Love”. The Eiffel Tower is now recognised worldwide as a “symbol of love”, and a symbol of Paris. The city of Paris attracts couples from all over the world due to its reputation of being one of the most romantic cities in the world. All across the globe people who think of Paris will identify it as the home of the Eiffel Tower. When you search for photos of Paris online almost all of them include the Eiffel Tower (see fig 7).

Figure 3: Elena Breeze’s ‘Paris Google Image Results’ (2020)

The structure has become a large part of the city’s identity and, as a result, its cultural identity. If architecture has the ability to reinvent a place’s identity then when we are designing and building our cities, surely we should be considering what our buildings will say about us and our country. Constructing buildings without any reference to ourselves or the place projects a meaningless expression of who we are today.

3. Globalisation:

To discuss how globalisation is affecting architecture and subsequently cultural identity we must first explore a key factor in its existence – Modernity. Kuiper suggest that the Modern era started in the 17th century and ended with the Postmodernist movement in the late 20th century (Kuiper, 2019:online) although it could be argued that the work of some more current creatives, such as architect Frank Gehry and novelist Gabriel García Márquez, suggest the movement is still alive in the twenty first century (Gay, 2007:online). In this essay globalisation will be referred to as a predominantly Western process. It was triggered by the Modernist movement which originated in Europe with the start of the industrial revolution (Kumar, K., no date:online). The industrial revolution and technological advancements that took place primarily in Europe have resulted in the “Western World” still being considered the main driving force of globalisation and modernisation (Sen, A., 2002:online), despite the fact that other countries such as Japan are arguably more technologically advanced than Europe and the United States of America (Newsroom, no date:online). Although we are no longer in the height of this Modernist era it could be argued that – if anything – the idea of a “perfect” way of living or designing is now even more prominent as technological advancements broadcast these Modernist ideals on a daily basis. Western civilisations are given priority in the media because of the inherent Western bias in modernisation and therefore globalisation. This often results in the idea that to be more “Western” is to be more successful – thus globalisation takes place: “one of the fundamental consequences of modernity… is globalisation” (Giddens, 1990:175). The Modernist era was epitomised by the idea that there was only one right way to do things, one right way to think: the modern way. Relying on scientific explanation, industrialism and rationalisation, the Modernist movement was capitalistic in character and suggested that there was no need for differentiation in the world as the “perfect” way of doing things – be this designing, leading, or any other facet of life – had been discovered and therefore all other methods were senseless. But acting and designing in such a way means that everything starts to look the same, Danish architect Bjarke Ingel states that the Modernist movement has turned buildings into “boring boxes” that “look identical all over the planet” (Ingel, B., cited by Sayigh, A., 2019:1). Undoubtedly there are advantages of Modernist architecture, such as the ease of construction and living, use of new technology and simplicity. But these modern methods and values could and should be used without ignoring other cultural values and techniques. When we lose all of these, we lose touch with our feelings and history: “Modernism is an outmoded way of thinking about design: it just doesn't reflect the way we live now. It always puts forward this idea that the past is irrelevant to tomorrow - and tomorrow is all that matters. But the past is part of who we are.” (Wonders, 2007) That being said, there are examples of modern buildings that place importance in maintaining culture and are using historical buildings to further their design and be more sustainable. For example, Masdar City in Abu Dhabi: “Masdar City combines state-of-the-art technologies with the planning principles of traditional Arab settlements to create a desert community that aims to be carbon neutral and zero waste.” (Foster and Partners, 2014:online).

Figure 4: Foster and Partner’s ‘Masdar City’ (2014)

As you can see in Figure 1 above, the city is designed to feature Mashrabiya – a traditional Middle Eastern window screen – used to create shade and allow wind to pass through buildings at the same time as maintaining the privacy valued in Middle Eastern cultures. It also has many courtyards which act as temperature regulators through “night flushing” (Abu Sirryeh, S., 2018). Taking this even further some of these courtyards contain fountains and fruit trees as a way to moisten the dry air – all methods used in traditional Arab settlements for centuries. The use of all of the above, clay and brick for thermal isolation, Malqafs (wind catching towers) as a form of sustainable cooling and narrow roads and alleyways, have resulted in the temperature in Masdar City being 10 degrees cooler than the surrounding areas. This is a glowing example of how modernity can be used at the same time as history and culture in a way which furthers our technological advancements and sustainability:

“Unlike Abu Dhabi, a city which unthinkingly follows antiquated models and Western building principles, Masdar City has a wealth of potential to offer the world of green urban planning - something the world sorely needs.” (Baldwin, E., 2019)

This case study shows that Modernity, with all of its pros and cons, can be used in a way that is respectful and places importance on culture and history. However, the ideals of Globalisation and Modernity often ignore cultural and historical values as they tend to stand in the way of things being done as easily and cheaply as possible, but as author and motivational speaker Jim Rohn said; “if you are not willing to risk the usual, you will have to settle for the ordinary” (Rohn, J., cited by Louis, A., 2015:92). So, we need to make sure that if we design in a way that prioritises ease of construction and minimum spending, we are asking ourselves if we mind settling for the ordinary and disregarding culture and values. That is not to say that modern technologies and cheaper methods should not be used but perhaps the way forward is to find a way of using these modern technologies and techniques without sacrificing other things such as culture and history, much like the design of Masdar City has done, helping us to live better lives at the same time as maintaining our values and history.

4. Cultural Hegemony:

Marxist philosophers coined the term “cultural hegemony”, meaning; “the domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class who manipulate the culture of that society” (Alsop, W., Bratton, D., et al., 2016:71). As stated previously, because of the modernist movement originating in the West, the Western world is often viewed as more advanced and powerful than the rest of the world – this reputation of power and wealth is then reinforced by the knowledge that in the past Europeans colonialised other countries. This hierarchy of culture has – and continues to – infiltrate the design world, causing cultural identities to be enveloped by Western ideals; “whoever controls the media – the images – controls the culture” (Ginsberg, A., cited by Roberts, N., 2016:4). Cultural Hegemony and globalisation have affected many different aspects of life in countries all around the world. Using the example of colonialism: in 1896 France declared Madagascar a French colony. During the French Colonial Era multiple species of trees were imported from France and planted in the country, meanwhile the French government was ordering deforestation to make room for sugar, cotton and coffee plantations – replacing the ‘unprofitable’ native wildlife with their own and reaping the rewards of the rich local materials. This disregarded any cultural or religious importance that the Malagasy people held in their land and natural resources. The same can be said for when the French (or any colonialising country) started building on their possessed land, they built in their style completely ignoring the fact that the native people had more knowledge of the environment and natural resources, disregarding any tradition and culture: colonial architecture is “an insignia of colonial authority and a signifier of colonial desire and discipline” (Bhabha, H., cited by Bernad, M.M., 2017:online). Perhaps because these Western powers once dominated the world, the idea that they know best has stuck and continues to influence society and design.

As a result of this cultural hegemony, it seems countries are no longer building and designing for themselves but to fit a mould created for them by the Western world. For example: glass skyscrapers. These buildings grew in popularity in the late 1950s with the completion of German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Seagram Building (Perez, A., 2010:online). Widely considered symbols of Modernism (Vidler, A., 2013:online) skyscrapers have also become symbols of wealth and power (Kim, S.D., 2010). Cities that experience high temperatures all year round are building these structures knowing that the use of glass for such large-scale projects makes it very difficult to control glare and temperature. Often the materials and building methods being used have no cultural relevance and seem drastically out of character for the place. So why are these buildings being constructed all around the world when in reality they are impractical in a lot of environments? It could be argued that the world’s population is increasing at such a rate that high-rises are necessary to house people. Although this is an undeniable factor in the increased construction of skyscrapers and the rate at which they are being built, there are countries such as the United Arab Emirates, 80% of which was desert in 2006 (MEOW, 2006, cited in FAO, 2008), who clearly have the space to house people without building vertically yet still chose to use skyscrapers which are inconvenient in their climate and do not nod in any way towards their culture. On the other hand, it could be argued that skyscrapers can form a place’s culture and identity. Take Dubai for example, a city known for its skyline and multicultural design and population. This aspect of Dubai contributed to the city receiving 15.8 million visitors in 2017 alone, (Visit Dubai, 2019), so obviously there is an impressive financial gain through this unique identity, however, there are also many negative effects. In 1999 Dubai was predominantly desert, yet by 2016 25% of the world’s cranes were in use in the city (Travel for Difference, 2016). In the space of 30 years Dubai’s population has increased by roughly 2.4 million (World Population Review, 2019) with only around 11% of Dubai’s total population being Emiratis. Most of the local Emiratis are incredibly wealthy, they are considered the “elite” class in the city. They use this power and money to bring more wealth to Dubai, bringing in expatriate employees from the West to globalise the city for financial gain and employing sub-continental manual workers in the construction of the city. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum said: “Dubai will never settle for anything less than first place” (Rashid Al Maktoum, M., 2015:4) perhaps this attitude has meant that choices are often made for the city without considering the cultural impact. Such a drastic and rapid change of culture and identity has led to Dubai becoming a city of contradictions. “The palm tree-dotted beaches would be swamped with sun-dried British expats getting sozzled beside a Muslim woman in a burqini lathering her five-year-old with SPF 50” (Anand, S., 2017). Islam values modesty yet glass towers showcasing everything going on inside are being built left, right and centre. It would be naïve to assume that the traditionally Muslim Emiratis are happy about the lack of privacy, skimpily clad tourists, expats, prostitutes and alcohol culture that has been brought into their city. It would also be unrealistic to expect the foreigners coming to Dubai to feel comfortable with the disapproving glares and sexual objectification they receive due to their attire and ways of life (see fig.2)

Figure 5: Karim Shahib’s ‘Two Veiled Emirati Women Stare at a Foreigner Wearing a Revealing Dress’ (2016)

The image above symbolises an adverse dynamic which I also experienced (despite being more modestly dressed) when visiting Dubai a few years ago. Walking through malls in Dubai, it was easy to imagine I was not in a Middle Eastern country. The global design used seemed to subconsciously suggest that I could act exactly how I do in the United Kingdom, when in fact I should have been considering the values and beliefs of those from the country in which I was a guest. Contrast Dubai to the city of Muscat in Oman. The Sultan of Oman decreed that buildings cannot be over 10 stories high, and when owners buy or construct houses, they have a choice of painting them 5 colours ranging from white to beige. The Sultan also has to approve the designs of all major public buildings being constructed. These regulations are to ensure the city’s cultural identity is maintained and to make sure the remarkably diverse natural landscape remains a focus in a time of rapid development. In the 1970s the city had one road and the population was 41,000, today they have many multiple lane highways and expressways and the population has risen to 1.5 million. A large percentage of Muscat’s population are expats and immigrants (about 50%, so lower than Dubai’s 89%), yet the country has managed to maintain its culture, identity and landscape (see figs.6 and 7).

Figure 6: no name ‘Muscat’ (no date)

Figure 7: Dmitry Birin’s ‘Dubai Skyline’ (2019)

As you can see from figure 6, in comparison to Dubai in figure 7 Muscat has done a much better job at maintaining its cultural identity despite its largely expatriate population. My family and I lived in Muscat for six years. Over this time I witnessed the city grow in population and become a popular tourist destination. The chain hotels and tourist facilities that were being built when I lived there paid close attention to the country’s culture and nodded to the nature and traditions of Oman as much as possible. This meant that people visiting the country were made aware of the cultural differences and therefore put more consideration into how they acted to avoid offending others. One of the hotels that went up while I lived in Muscat was The W, owned by Marriott International. Before I left the country, I was fortunate to get a tour of this recently opened building. The project, designed by P49Deesign in collaboration with Rockwell Group and LMS Dubai, was – like all major tourist projects in Muscat – closely overlooked by OMRAN (Oman Tourism Development Company) whose priority is “to ensure a positive physical, social, economic contribution to both the environment and people’s lives while respecting the traditional culture and environmental values of Oman” (OMRAN, 2005). Due to OMRAN’s involvement the architects and designers involved in the project have considered Oman’s history, culture and nature in every step of the process.

Figure 8: ‘W Muscat’ (2019)

The image above shows the lobby area in the W in Muscat. The lobby features two LED ceiling installations, the one in the foreground is based on the waves that can be seen from the north face of the hotel whilst the background instillation is a small-scale replica of the Omani mountain ranges that can be seen to the south. The space uses Arabic majlis-style seating, geometric patterns and when you arrive at the hotel you are greeted by a 10-meter-tall frankincense tree sculpture – in Omani culture frankincense was used to welcome weary travellers. The rooms have sloping ceilings that are reminiscent of tents and small lights on the ceiling give the illusion that you are under a starry night sky. The whole hotel has “a design narrative that explores the journey of a nomadic Bedouin traveller” (Commercial Interior Design, 2019:online), it is a perfect example of a design that uses modern techniques and materials in a way that showcases the local culture. Not all hotels in Muscat showcase the Omani culture to the same extent as The W. Chain hotels such as The Intercontinental and The Crowne Plaza – often used for business – present a more global design – appropriate for those visiting the country for work who don’t want distractions.

Figure 9: Crowne Plaza ‘Lobby Lounge’ (2019)

The image above shows the lobby lounge in the Crowne Plaza in Muscat. Whilst the materials and colours are kept simple to avoid distraction there are still hints of Omani culture such as the Arabic pots on the left-hand side, majlis-style seating, the Mashrabiya inspired room divider and, of course, the representation of the Arabian oryx. This example shows that it is possible to create a non-distracting working environment for businessmen without disregarding culture in the design completely. Oman’s success at maintaining its cultural identity through a time of vast change is an impressive feat that could possibly offer an example of how others can remain true to their culture and values without avoiding globalisation and modernization completely. The Sultan’s love of culture and his pride in the country has spread to the people and resulted in organisations such as OMRAN being created. These organisations mean that designers coming from other countries do not disregard Oman’s culture so will have to consider this and other values when designing, meaning that all designs are created with Oman and the people of Oman in mind. The result is that most designs are related to the country in some way.

Conclusion

Cultural diversity is to be celebrated for the predominately positive effect it has on society. Architecture and design play an important role in reflecting our differing identities, symbolising our culture and values. Globalisation and Modernisation are currently dampening the celebration of cultural diversity, their ideals leading to designs that are uniform and Western in nature. This globalised design aesthetic drives non-Western countries to conform to a mould of what an “advanced” city or country looks like. In some cases, such as Dubai, this contributes to creating a sterile and contradictory atmosphere. The globalised design of buildings subjugates the local culture in a way that devalues it and suggests that one can act how one would in the Western world, at times leading to (unknowingly) disrespectful behaviour. Cultures evolving and places becoming more multicultural is an inevitable side effect of travel, and indeed globalisation. This is not a plea to halt globalisation or Modernity – there are undeniable benefits to both – but in architectural design we should aim to combine them with, and be sensitive to, local cultures. We should create a process wherein we ensure local cultures are maintained while simultaneously keeping an open mind about integrating other cultures. I would advocate governments taking the example of countries such as Oman and playing a more central role in encouraging the preservation of aspects of local cultures in design, so alerting those visiting their country to what is important and valuable to them. As a result uncomfortable contradictions and disrespectful behaviour can be minimised.

As hotels contribute to tourists' experience of a place, they too have an important role and as such their design should also nod towards the culture in which they are located. Hotel chains coming into foreign cultures should work with local designers, cultural educators and tourist organisations in a bid to ensure their hotel showcases that location’s history and culture adequately. Furthermore, if materials and components are being imported to a location, they should be suitable to the climate and environment in which they will be situated. In conclusion, we should be more meaningful and considerate in our design. We are at a point where money and power are its driving force. I ask that we, as designers and cultural groups, observe and consult, putting more thought into the design decisions so that we take full account of existing models and local people’s needs and wants. Word count: 4905

Bibliography:

Abu Sirryeh, S. (2018) Sustainability Principles in Traditional Islamic Architecture [Online] [Accessed: 2 December 2019] https://www.ecomena.org/sustainability-islamic-architecture/

Alsop, W., Bratton, D., Brislin, P., Burry, M., Chaszar, A., Coates, N., Cook, P., Cruz, T., Fordham, M., Fuksas, M., Goodwin, K., Heathcote, E., Hunt, A., Jencks, C., Maxwell, B., McGrath, B., Merkel, J., Murray, P., Rattenbury, K., Robbins, M., Saunt, D., Schumacher, P., Sharples, C., Spiller, N., van Schaik, L., Weisz, C., Yeang, K., Zaera-Polo, A. (2016) ‘Can The Obscene Exist Without Its Implied Condemnation and Subsequent Punishment?', Evoking through Design: Contemporary Moods in Architecture, 224. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 71.

Anand, S. (2017) ‘Booze and bulls***: The dark side of Dubai’, news.com.au, Australia, 20 July. Available at: https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-advice/travellers-stories/burqas-booze-and-bull-the-dark-side-of-dubai/news-story/084d1acb89cd39e2bf72d6a59f696a45 [Accessed: 5th December 2019]

Baldwin, E. (2019) ‘Building Anew: Abu Dhabi’s Modern Architectural Projects’, ArchDaily, 24 September. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/925334/building-anew-abu-dhabis-modern-architectural-projects [Accessed: 28 November 2019]

Bernad, M.M, (2017) Colonialism and Architecture [Online] [Accessed: 1 January 2020] https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2014/06/20/colonialism-and-architecture/

Blackall, M. (2019) ‘Global Tourism Hits Record Highs – But Who Goes Where On Holiday?’, The Guardian, London, 1 July. Avilable at: https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jul/01/global-tourism-hits-record-highs-but-who-goes-where-on-holiday [Accessed: 19 November 2019]

Bochner, S. 1994. Section VI Chapter 35: Culture Shock. In: Lonner, W.J., Malpass, R.S ed. Psychology and Culture. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 245

Bochner, S & Furnham , A. 1994. Intercultural contact: process and outcomes. In: Bochner, S & Furnham, A eds. Culture Shock: Psychological reactions to unfamiliar environments. London: Routledge, pp. 9

Brislin, P. 2012. Identity, Place and Human Experience. In: Alsop et al. eds. Human Experience and Place. London: Wiley, pp. 8-13

Commercial Interior Design (2019) W Muscat’s Design is Inspired by a Nomadic Bedouin Traveller. [Online] [Accessed: 4 December 2019] https://www.commercialinteriordesign.com/44672-w-muscats-design-is-inspired-by-a-nomadic-bedouin-traveler

Derakhshani, F. 2012. Appropriating, Reclaiming and Inventing Identity Through Architecture. In: Alsop et al. eds. Human Experience and Place. London: Wiley, pp. 29-33

Ellewood, M., Redman, L.D. (2016) ‘The Science of Wonderlust’, Conde Nast Traveller, London, 12 June. Available at: https://www.cntraveler.com/story/the-science-of-wanderlust [Accessed: 5 December 2019]

Ettehad, S., Karimi, R. A., Kari, G., 2014, ‘The Role of Culture in Promoting Architectural Identity’, European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences 2014, vol.3, No.4 Special Issue on Architecture, Urbanism, and Civil Engineering ISSN 1805-3602

EVS Translations (2017) The Role of Architecture in Preserving Cultural Identity. [Online] [Accessed: 16 July 2019] https://evs-translations.com/blog/architecture-cultural-identity/

Food and Agricultural Organisation (2008) United Arab Emirates. [Online] [Accessed: 5 December 2019] http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/ARE/ARE-CP_eng.pdf

Foster and Partners (2014) Masdar City. [Online] [Accessed: 4 December 2019] https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/masdar-city/

Gay, P. (2007) ‘Is Modernism Dead?’, The Guardian, London, 7 November. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/artblog/2007/nov/07/ismodernismdead [Accessed 2 December 2019]

Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press in association with Blackwell.

Gilden, J. (2010) ‘Experiencing Different Cultures Enhances Creativity’, EurekAlert!, Washington D.C., 29 June. Available at:

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-06/sp-edc062910.php [Accessed: 22 September 2019]

Hancock, J. (2017) The Benefits of Experiencing Another Culture Are Immense [Online] [Accessed: 21 September 2019] https://www.bradenton.com/living/religion/article162972758.html

Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity. Oxford. United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

Hobson, B. (2018) ‘A Great Hotel Experience is “much more than just design” say AHEAD Asia Awards judges’, Dezeen, London, 29 March. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2018/03/29/video-ahead-awards-asia-hotel-experience-design-movie/ [Accessed: 27 July 2019]

Kamin, B (2001). Why Architecture Matters. (1st ed.). London: The University of Chicago Press.

Kim, S.D. (2010) Skyscrapers Express Wealth and Power of The City. [Online] [Accessed: 2 December 2019] Available at: https://www.emirates247.com/eb247/opinion/comment/skyscrapers-express-wealth-and-power-of-the-city-2010-03-10-1.66898

Kuiper, K. (2019) ‘Modernism’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Edinburgh, 19 November. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art [Accessed: 4 December 2019]

Kumar, K. (no date) Modernisation. [Online] [Accessed: 1 January 2020] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/modernization#accordion-article-history

Lindsay, C. (2019) ‘AHEAD Asia Hotel Award Winners Show “design born out of real heritage”’, Dezeen, London, 5 April. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2019/04/05/ahead-asia-awards-hotels-2019-judges-video/ [Accessed: 6 December 2019]

Leach, N. 2002. Belonging: Towards a Theory of Identification with Space. In: Hillier, J & Rooksby, E eds. Habitus: A Sense of Place. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited , pp. 281-292

Lehrer, J. (2010) ‘Why We Travel’, The Guardian, London, 14 March. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2010/mar/14/why-travel-makes-you-smarter [Accessed: 19 November 2019]

Llanakila. (2018) Interviewed by Natalie Clarkson for Virgin, 19 November. Available at: https://www.virgin.com/entrepreneur/encouraging-diversity-art-world [Accessed: November 18 2019]

Lonner, W.J., Malpass, R.S. 1994. Section IV: Culture's Influence on Basic Psychological Processes. In: Lonner, W.J., Malpass, R.S. ed. Psychology and Culture. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 127

Louis, A., 2015, Famous Success Quotes, New York: Let’s Go Big Family, Brooklyn.

Maclay, B., 2014, “The New Net Zero: Leading-Edge Design and Construction of Homes and Buildings for a Renewable Energy Future”. Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing, p.vii

Madray, D., (2017) The Evolution of Design with Culture Thinking: Why We Should Think About Culture Before we Design [Online] [Accessed: 21 July 2019] https://uxdesign.cc/exploring-how-to-design-meaningful-products-with-culture-31b1fe132bd3

Mccarter, R & Pallasmaa, J (2012). Understanding Architecture. (1st ed.). London: Phaidon Press Limited.

Ministry of Social Development (2003) Cultural Identity. [Online] [Accessed: 18 July 2019] http://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/2003/cultural-identity/cultural-identity.shtml

Mirchandani, K. (2015) Ontological Design: How Our Spaces Shape us and How we are Inspired to Shape our Spaces. Masters. University of Lincoln.

Mumtaz, K.K. (1999) Modernity and Tradition – Contemporary Architecture in Pakistan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

National Geographic (2019) Map of Human Migration. [Online] [Accessed: 4 December 2019] Available at: https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/

Newsroom (no date) 12 Most Technologically Advanced Nations in The World. [Online] [Accessed: 1 January 2020] Available at: http://en.protothema.gr/12-most-technologically-advanced-nations-in-the-world-photos/

OMRAN (2005) Oman Tourism Development Company. [Online] [Accessed: 4 December 2019] Available at: https://omran.om/omran/about-omran1/

Paradigm Design Group (2018) Hotel Design That Celebrates Local Culture, History and Style [Online] [Accessed: 27 July 2019] Available at: https://www.paradigm-design.com/new-blog/2018/5/2/hotel-design-that-celebrates-local-culture-history-style

Perez, A. (2010) AD Classics: Seagram Building / Mies van der Rohe. [Online] [Accessed: 2 December 2019] Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/59412/ad-classics-seagram-building-mies-van-der-rohe

Psychology Blog Aimee (2013) Wanderlust: A Genetic Basic to a Globetrotting Fanatic. [Online] [Accessed: 4 December 2019] Available at: https://psychologyblogaimee.wordpress.com/2013/12/04/wanderlust-a-genetic-basis-to-a-globetrotting-fanatic/

Rashid Al Maktoum, M. (2015) Flashes of Thought: Lessons in life and leadership from the man behind Dubai. London: Profile Books Ltd.

Rietbergen, P. (1998) Europe: A Cultural History. London: Routledge.

Roberts, N. (2016) Surface Tensions: Searching for Sacred Connection in a Media-Saturated World. Massachusetts, United States: Hendrickson Publishers Marketing.

Sayigh, A. (2019) Sustainable Vernacular Architecture: How The Past Can Enrich The Future. Basel, Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG.

Sen, A. (2002) Does Globalisation Equal Westernisation? [Online] [Accessed: 1 January 2020] Available at: https://www.theglobalist.com/does-globalization-equal-westernization/

Silva, J. (2014) Shots of Awe: How our Creations Change Us. [Online] [Accessed: 21 July 2019] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHCo9U4jxzE

Smithfield, B. (2016) Guy de Maupassant ate lunch everyday at the base of the Eiffel Tower, because that was the only place in Paris from which he could not see it… [Online] [Accessed: 29 November 2019] Available at: https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/09/20/priority-french-writer-ate-lunch-everyday-base-eiffel-tower-place-paris-not-see-2/

Travel for Difference. July 2016. Dubai, The City in The Middle of The Desert. [Online] [Accessed: 5 December 2019] Available at: https://www.travelfordifference.com/dubai-city-middle-desert/

Trimble, J.E. 2003. Introduction: Social Change and Acculturation. In: Chun, K.M, Organista, P.B & Marín, G eds. Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied Research. Washington: American Psychology Association , pp. 3-13

UKEssays. November 2018. Importance of Culture Essay. [online] [Accessed: 18 July 2019] Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/cultural-studies/culture-and-its-importance-essay.php?vref=1

UKEssays. November 2018. Importance Of Culture Tourism Cultural Studies Essay. [online]. [Accessed: 18 July 2019] Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/cultural-studies/importance-of-culture-tourism-cultural-studies-essay.php?vref=1

Velasquez, I. (2018) Incorporating Local Culture is the Latest Trend in Resort Design [Online] [Accessed: 27 July 2019] Available at: https://www.fohlio.com/blog/local-culture-trend-resort-design/

Very Well Mind. (2019) How the Need To Belong Influences Human Behavior and Motivation. [Online] [Accessed: 19 November 2019] Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-need-to-belong-2795393

Vidler, A. (2013) Building Seagram: A Memoir of Mies and Modernism. [Online] [Accessed: 2 December 2019] Available at: https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/building-seagram-a-memoir-of-mies-and-modernism/8652671.article

Visit Dubai. (2019) 15.8 Million People Visited Dubai in 2017. [Online] [Accessed: 5 December 2019] Available at: https://www.visitdubai.com/en/business-in-dubai/event-planning/dbe-2018-q1-newsletter/people-visited-dubai-in-2017

Ward, C, Bochner, S & Furnham, A (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. (1st ed.). East Sussex: Routledge.

Watkins, E. (2014) ‘Local Culture Informs Hotel Design’, Hotel News Now, Ohio, 27 May. Available at: http://hotelnewsnow.com/Articles/22740/Local-culture-informs-hotel-design [Accessed: 27 July 2019]

Willis, A-M. (2006) ‘Ontological Designing’, Design Philosophy Papers, vol. 4, no.2, pp. 69-92.

Wonders, M. (2017) Interviewed by Josh Sims for Mojeh Men, 10 May. Available at: https://mojehmen.com/world-of-wanders-marcel-wanders-interview/ (Accessed: 28 November 2019).

World Population Review (2019) Dubai Population 2019. [Online] [Accessed: 5 December 2019] http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/dubai-population/

Zumthor, P. Thinking Architecture. 2nd ed. Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhauser

Images:

Figure 1: National Geographic ‘Map of Human Migration’ (2020) a map of human migration based off DNA tracking. [Online] [Accessed on 3 January 2020]

https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/

Figure 2: ‘Milan’s Duomo’ (no date) a photo of Milan’s Duomo Cathedral at night-time. [Online] [Accessed on 3 January 2020] https://www.walksofitaly.com/blog/milan/milan-duomo-facts

Figure 3: Elena Breeze’s ‘Paris Google Image Results (2020) a screenshot of Google image search results for Paris.

Figure 4: Foster and Partner’s ‘Masdar City’ (2014) a design visual of Masdar City, Abu Dhabi. [Online] [Accessed on 28 November, 2019] https://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/masdar-city/

Figure 5: Karim Shahib’s ‘Two Veiled Emirati Women Stare at a Foreigner Wearing a Revealing Dress’ (2016) Emirati women stare at a foreigner wearing a revealing dress at the Dubai World Cup horse races. [Online] [Accessed on 5th December, 2019] https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/life/living-in-dubai-why-dont-expats-integrate-with-emiratis/

Figure 6: No name ‘Muscat’ (no date) a panoramic view of an area of Muscat, Oman. [Online] [Accessed on 5th December, 2019] https://blog.parkinn.com/historical-tour-muscat/

Figure 7: Dmitry Birin ‘Dubai Skyline’ (2019) a panoramic view of Dubai’s skyline [Online] [Accessed on 5th December, 2019] https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/331080

Figure 8: No name ‘W Muscat’ (2019) the lobby in the W Hotel in Muscat [Online] [Accessed on 4 December, 2019] https://www.commercialinteriordesign.com/44672-w-muscats-design-is-inspired-by-a-nomadic-bedouin-traveler

Figure 9: Crowne Plaza ‘Lobby Lounge’ (2019) photograph of the lobby lounge in The Crowne Plaza Qurum, Muscat. [Online] [Accessed on 2 December, 2019] https://www.ihg.com/crowneplaza/hotels/gb/en/muscat/mschc/hoteldetail/photos-tours#scmisc=nav_photos-tours_cp